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Case Study Building A Policy Briefing - 1699 Words

ASSIGNMENT3: BUILDING A POLICY BRIEFING Stephana PEA Prof. Aaron Watches May 8, 2016 Submitted on April 11, 2016 University of Baltimore- Spring Quarter 2016 What can the Baltimore government/policy makers do about homeless in Baltimore? The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the policy and actions that can be taken to end the homelessness issue. Homeless is a serious multi-faceted issue that requires the involvement of many agencies, policymakers, governments and faith-organizations. Having no home is a miserable experience, causing health problems, exacerbating existing health problems, and complicating treatment. It is so difficult to find a safe place to stay, obtain enough food, keep clean, and stay out of the way of the police and even sleeping on the streets, on people’s sofa and in doorways, Baltimore’s homeless population has been increased in recent years. There are several answers to this issue, and its depend on the individual’s matters. One of the solutions to end homelessness in Baltimore city is housing, trying to re-housing the homeless people in a safe environment. Second, ending poverty, next another solution to homelessness is guaranteeing that everybody has the health and c onfirmatory services that they need to stay housed. For individuals who are mentally sick or physically disabled. It is often the case that overburdened family members cannot or do not wish to care for them. This reduces their options to abandoned buildings orShow MoreRelatedThe Employees After A Downsizing Case Study Essay1707 Words   |  7 Pages Case Study Description The reenergizing employees after a downsizing case study, explains the potential effects of downsizing a company, on both employees and the manager. Andrea Zuckerman is the editor in chief of Blaze and the person who must relay the message to the entire company. It is made clear throughout the case that Andrea does not agree with this downsizing and feels that it is wrong. 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Has Gallo Proven The Role Of Hiv In Aids Essay Example For Students

Has Gallo Proven The Role Of Hiv In Aids? Essay Introduction In 1982, Robert Gallo from the National Cancer Institute in the USA, put forward the hypothesis that the cause of AIDS is a retrovirus. One year later, Myron Essex and his colleagues (1) found that AIDS patients had antibodies to the Human T-cell Leukemia virus Type-1 (HTLV-I), a virus discovered by Gallo a few years earlier. At the same time, Gallo and his colleagues (2) reported the isolation of HTLV-I from AIDS patients and advocated a role for this retrovirus in the pathogenesis of AIDS. This hypothesis however, was not without a few problems: 1. While HTLV-I was accepted to induce T4-cell proliferation and cause adult T-cell leukaemia,(3) the hallmark of AIDS was T4-cell depletion, and the incidence of leukaemia in AIDS patients was no higher than in the general population; 2. The highest frequency of antibodies to this virus was found in Japan, yet no AIDS cases had been reported from that country;(4) 3. In the same month in which Gallos and Essexs groups reported their data, Luc Montagnier and his colleagues from the Pasteur Institute, described the isolation of a retrovirus, later known as Lymphadenopathy Associated Virus (LAV), from the lymph nodes of a homosexual patient with lymphadenopathy.(5) Although this virus was similar to HTLV-I, one of its proteins, a protein with a molecular weight of 24,000 (p24), did not react with monoclonal antibodies to the HTLV-I p24 protein. Samples of this virus were, on several occasions, sent to Gallos laboratory. In May 1984, Gallo, Popovic and their colleagues published four papers in Science in which they claimed to have isolated from AIDS patients, another retrovirus, which they called HTLV-III.(6,7,8,9) On the 23rd of April 1984, before the Science papers were published, Gallo and Margaret Heckler, the then Health and Human Services Secretary called a press conference to announce that Gallo and his co-workers had found the cause of AIDS and had developed a sensitive test to show whether the AIDS virus is present in blood. In 1985, the Pasteur Institute alleged that Gallo had misappropriated LAV in developing the blood test. The ensuing conflict, which reached the American courts, was eventually settled by a negotiated agreement signed in 1987 by Gallo, Montagnier, US President Reagan and French Premier Chirac. The agreement declared Gallo and Montagnier to be co-discoverers of the AIDS virus, presently known as the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Nevertheless, the misappropriation conflict drew the attention of John Crewdson, an investigative journalist, and US Senator John Dingell. In November 1989, Crewdson published a lengthy article in the Chicago Tribune newspaper, With allegations that Robert C. Gallo stole from French scientists the virus he discovered to be the cause of AIDS. (10) This led to a National Institute of Health (NIH) internal inquiry into the allegation with an outside committee of expert but disinterested parties led by Yale biochemist Frederic Richards to oversee the activity of the internal panel.(11) Following the inquiry, which was viewed as a fact-finding mission, the Richards committee insisted on a formal investigation on suspect data in one of four seminal papers published by Gallos lab in Science on 4 May 1984.(12) In this paper, the first of a series of four, with Mikulas Popovic the principal author, their appears to be differences between what was described in the paper and what was done. (10) A draft report of the formal investigation written by NIH Office of Scientific Integrity (OSI), was published in September 1991. In the draft report, Popovic is accused of misconduct for misstatements and inaccuracies that appeared in the paper, and that Gallo, as laboratory chief, created and fostered conditions that give rise to falsified/ fabricated data and falsified reports. However, Gallos actions were not considered to meet the formal definition of misconduct.(13) The final draft report of the OSI, completed in January 1992, was immediately criticised by the Richards Panel as well as Senator Dingell. This led to a review of the OSI report by the Office of Research Integrity (ORI), which found Gallo guilty of scientific misconduct. Nonetheless, the scientific misconduct is said not to negate the central findings of the 1984 Science paper. Asian Philosophies of Critical Thinking Essay Among the recipients of WBI blood, 36% were WBI 6 months after transfusion, but so were 42% of individuals who received WB-negative samples. Both donors and recipients of blood remained healthy. They concluded that WBI patterns are exceedingly common in randomly selected donors and recipients and such patterns do not correlate with the presence of HIV-1 or the transmission of HIV-1, most such reactions represent false- positive results; 3. Antibodies to p24 have been detected in 1 out of 150 healthy individuals, 13% of randomly selected otherwise healthy patients with generalised warts, 24% of patients with cutaneous T-cell lymphoma and prodrome and 41% of patients with multiple sclerosis;(52) 4. Ninety seven percent of sera from homosexuals with ITP and 94% of sera from homosexuals with lymphandenopathy or AIDS contain an antibody that reacts with a 25Kd membrane antigen found in platelets from healthy donors and AIDS patients, as well as a 25 Kd antigen found in green-monkey kidney cells, human skin fibroblasts, and herpes simplex cultured in monkey kidney cells. This reaction was absent in sera obtained from non-homosexual patients with ITP or non-immune thrombocytopenic purpura;(48) 5. Conversely, the p24 antigen is not found in all HIV positive or even AIDS patients. In one study, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and p24 were used to detect HIV in patients at various CDC stages from asymptomatic to AIDS. p24 was detected in 24% patients and HIV RNA in 50%;(53) 6. In another study, In half of the cases in which a subject had a positive p24 test, the subject later had a negative test without taking any medications that would be expected to affect p24 antigen levels the test is clinically erratic and should be interpreted very cautiously.(54) Thus the finding of viral particles in the AIDS cultures/co- cultures, RT and proteins which react with AIDS related sera in the material from the supernatant or cell lysates which in sucrose density gradients bands at 1.16 gm/ml, cannot be considered synonymous with the isolation or even the detection of a retrovirus. Even if a retrovirus is isolated from in vitro cultures/co-cultures from tissues from AIDS patients, this does not, by itself, constitute proof of the existence of the virus in vivo, (in AIDS patients), and even less that the retrovirus has been exogenously acquired. This is because: 1. At present, it is generally accepted that one of the most striking features that distinguish retroviruses from all other animal retroviruses is the presence, in the chromosomes of normal uninfected cells, of genomes closely related to, or identical with those of infectious viruses. The human genome, in addition to other proviral sequences, is known to contain both HTLV-I (55,56) and HIV (57) sequences. Depending on conditions, the proviral genome remains unexpressed or part or all of it may be expressed. The latter may or may not lead to the assembly of viral particles (endogenous retrovirus).(17) In animal cultures, healthy non-virus producing cells sooner or later spontaneously release retroviruses.(20) The appearance and yield can be increased by (i) mitogenic stimulation;(58) (ii) co-cultivation techniques;(59) (iii) cultivation of cells with supernatant from non-virus producing cultures.(60) According to one eminent retrovirologist, George Todaro, the failure to isolate endogenous viruses from certain species may reflect thelimitation of in vitro cocultivation techniques;(61) 2. Gallos team, like everybody else: (i) isolated HTLV-III (HIV) from cell cultures; (ii) isolated HTLV-III from mitogenically stimulated, activated cell cultures; 3. In addition, Gallo and his colleagues also used co-cultivation techniques; 4. The first HTLV-III isolation was from the HT (H4, H9, H17) cell line. Reading Gallo and his colleagues first paper, one surmises that the HT cell line was established in Gallos laboratory. The Gallo inquiry revealed that the HT cell line is in fact HUT78, a cell line established in another laboratory from a patient with mature T4-cell leukaemia, a disease which Gallo claims is caused by the exogenous retrovirus, HTLV-I.(3) If so, then all HT cell cultures, and the clones derived from it, infected with HTLV-III or non-infected, and the material from these cultures which bands at 1.16 gm/ml, should contain HTLV-I, and thus RT and retroviral particles. Furthermore, because about 25% of AIDS patients have antibodies to HTVL-I,(1) and the immunogenic proteins of HTLV-I and HIV have the same molecular weights, then approximately 25% of the non-infected HT (H4, H9, H17) cultures in addition to RT and particles, should have, in the Western blot, the same bands as those of the HTLV-III infected cultures. Thus, these WBs will erroneously appear positive for HTLV-III. Proof that HTLV-III (HIV) is causally linked to AIDS. Gallo claims, a claim accepted by the vast majority of AIDS researchers, that in the May 1984 Science papers he and his colleagues presented unambiguous evidence that this and this alone was the cause of AIDS.(62) A minimum requirement for making such a claim should be presentation of the following evidence: 1. That all AIDS patients are infected with HTLV-III; 2. Infection with HTLV-III leads to T4-cell depletion, given the assumption that HTLV-III leads to the clinical syndrome by its T4 cytotoxicity. The evidence for the existence of HTLV-III was viral isolation and ELISA antibody tests. Even if one assumes that the data presented represents true isolation, the virus was isolated from less that half (10/21) of AIDS patients with opportunistic infections, and in less than one third (13/43) with Kaposis sarcoma, then and now the two most characteristic AIDS diseases. Even if the virus could have been isolated from all patients, given the nature of retroviruses and the method used for HTLV-III isolation (cultures, mitogenic stimulation, co- cultivation) the possibility cannot be excluded that the virus did not exist in vivo (in AIDS patients), and that it was a provirus whose expression was facilitated by the culture conditions. The only method used to prove HIV infection in vivo was the antibody tests. Such a test can only be used only after its specificity has been proven by use of the only possible gold standard, the virus itself. This has not been done. Furthermore, the antibody test used by Gallo was ELISA, at present known to be non-reproducible and non-specific. In a study of 1.2 million healthy military applicants conducted by Colonel Donald Burke and his colleagues,(63) it was found that although approximately 1% of all individuals had an initial positive HIV ELISA, only 50% of repeat ELISAs were positive. Of the latter, only approximately one third were associated with two subsequent positive WBs. In Russia, in 1990, out of 20,000 positive ELISAs only 112 were confirmed using the WB as a gold standard. In 1991, of approximately 30,000 positive ELISAs, only 66 were confirmed.(64) Nowhere in the four Science papers was HTVL-III cytotoxicity mentioned. The only reference to any cellular abnormalities or pathology in general is in the first paper where one reads: The virus positive cultures consistently showed a high proportion of round giant cells containing numerous nuclei (Fig. 1a). These cells resemble those induced by HTLV-I and -II except that the nuclei exhibit a characteristic ring formation. (Fig. 1a is a light microscopic examination of clone H4/HTLV-III). The H4 clone was obtained from the HT cell line using irradiated mononuclear cells from peripheral blood of a healthy blood donor as a feeder. At present, it is known that the HT cell line and thus H4 are HUT78, derived in 1980 from a patient with mature T4-cell leukaemia,(65,66) However, other cell lines derived from patients with the same clinical syndrome are known to exhibit similar morphologies including multinucleated giant cells.(67) Thus the cellular morphological characteristics observed in the first paper may have been an intrinsic property of the HT cell line, or the result of the culture conditions, or both, and not due to HTLV-III. Finally, Gallo and his colleagues did not provide any data on the immunological status of those individuals from whom viral isolation was attempted, and no data was presented proving that: 1. HTLV-III (HIV) is both a necessary and sufficient cause of T4- cell depletion; 2. T4-cell depletion is both necessary and sufficient for the appearance of the AIDS indicator diseases. Conclusions The data and arguments that have been presented by Gallo and his colleagues do not constitute proof of HIV isolation or an unambiguous role for HIV in the pathogenesis of AIDS. Although some researchers currently use methods of viral isolation essentially the same as that described by Gallos group, most use less rigorous methods including singleton detection of p24 (by antibody techniques), or RT. Notwithstanding, with all of these techniques, including that described by Gallo and his colleagues, which itself seen to be greatly problematic, HIV cannot be isolated from 20%-70% of HIV positive and AIDS patients(68,69) Thus we are faced with a problem of considerable importance. The HIV antibody tests, both ELISA and WB, the only routinely used tests proving the existence in vivo of HIV, have yet to be verified against the only suitable gold standard, viral isolation. The available evidence suggests that this long overdue but most basic requirement of test evaluation is likely to prove an immense problem, and while the HIV antibody tests are useful prognostic markers in the high risk groups, their use as diagnostic and epidemiological tools for HIV infection is questionable.References 1. Essex M, McLane MF, Lee TH, et al. Antibodies to Cell Membrane Antigens Associated with Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus in Patients with AIDS. Science 1985;220:859-862. 2. Gallo RC, Sarin PS, Gelmann EP, et al. Isolation of Human T- Cell Leukemia Virus in Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Science 1983;220:865-867. 3. Gallo RC. The First Human Retrovirus. Sci Am 1986; 255:78-88. 4. Marx JL. Human T-Cell Leukemia Linked to AIDS. Science 1983;220:806-809. 5. Barre-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, et al. Isolation of a T-Lymphotrophic Retrovirus from a patient at Risk for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Science 1983;220:868-871. 6. Popovic M, Sarngadharan MG, Read E, et al. Detection, Isolation,and Continuous Production of Cytopathic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) from Patients with AIDS and Pre-AIDS. Science 1984;224:497-500. 7. Gallo RC, Salahuddin SZ, Popovic M, et al. Frequent Detection and Isolation of Cytopathic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) from Patients with AIDS and at Risk for AIDS. Science 1984;224:500-502. 8. Schupbach J, Popovic M, Gilden RV, et al. Serological analysis of a Subgroup of Human T-Lymphotrophic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) Associated with AIDS. Science 1984;224:503-505. 9. Sarngadharan MG, Popovic M,Bruch L, et al. Antibodies Reactive to Human T-Lymphotrophic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) in the Serum of Patients with AIDS. Science 1984:224:506-508. 10. Culliton BJ. Gallo Inquiry Takes Puzzling New Turn. Science 1990:250:202-203. 11. Culliton BJ. Inside the Gallo Probe. Science 1990;248:1494-1498. 12. Hamilton DP. What Next in the Gallo Case? Science 1991;254:944-945. 13. Palca J. Draft of Gallo Report Sees the Light of Day. Science 1991;253:1347-1348. 14. Cohen J. HHS: Gallo Guilty of Misconduct. Science 1993:259:168-170. 15. Gallo RC, Sarin PS, Kramarsky B. et al. First isolation of HTLV-III. Nature 1986;321:119. BibliographyThe evidence that Robert Gallo and his colleagues presented on 4th May 1984 regarding HTLV-III (HIV) isolation and the role of HIV in the pathogenesis of AIDS is critically analysed. It is concluded that the evidence does not constitute proof of the isolation of a retrovirus, that the virus is exogenous or that the virus is causally related to AIDS. Medicine Essays

Thomas Jefferson

Table of Contents Introduction Education background Early Career Dates Serving in highest federal office Achievements as a federal government official Later years/death Works Cited Introduction The logician was born in Shadwell in 1743 (Malone, 11). His father was a triumphant farm owner and surveyor while his mother originated from one of the renowned families in Virginia. His matrimony produced six children, but only two lived to maturity. Jefferson lived in Monticello where he expanded his business while erecting his dwelling. Thomas, the third president of the US, was a historian, public executive and truth-seeker who served his country industriously for decades.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Thomas Jefferson specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Education background At age nine, he was edified by a clergyman who skilled him on Greek, Latin and French (Kelly). Jefferson then attended Reverand James Mauryâ₠¬â„¢s association before joining William and Mary institution in the early 60s, and finally learning law with George, a revolutionary law professor in the US. Early Career He took over his parent’s agricultural estate and workforce where he furthered his early vocation as a farm administrator. He had a peculiarity in being a structural designer, natural scientist and multilingual (Malone, 11). After college, he trained in law and operated in local administration as a magistrate, district deputy, and an affiliate of the House of Burgesses. In 1776, he was preferred to outline the Declaration of Independence owing to his pose in the Continental Congress, which has been unanimously considered as a bond of the US and international autonomies. The paper emphasized on impartiality in race and assets and the function of the regime in serving the populace. After parting congress in 1776, he revisited his home to serve as a voted agent (Kelly), where he governed the section from 1779- 1781. There was a short-lived break in his personal life in the last year, where he summarized notes about Virginia. He had political adversaries who hardheartedly disparaged his headship as a governor (Bernstein, 81), citing his unavailability during predicaments. Dates Serving in highest federal office Three years later he returned to communal service where he served as a commerce representative in France, before later succeeding Benjamin Franklin as minister (Morse, 71). He helped settle commercial treaties while in France due to the opposition of some European countries to the US fiscal propositions. Thomas attributed their unawareness on the insufficient information they had in the rewards of commerce to both parties. He strengthened his knowledge in European literature during this period, while delivering books, information and diverse materials to Monticello.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF L earn More George Washington, a special associate, offered him the post of the state secretary in 1790 (Morse, 88), amid Jefferson’s unwillingness. He quit the position, after being undermined by Washington due to his marginal position among the representatives. During his short-lived departure, he devoted his time to the farm and his family, while trying out new machinery and commenced the creation of Monticello. Six years later, as a presidential entrant, he occupied the post of the vice-president after minimally losing to a close friend (Coates). Four years later, however, he became president, where there was the most nonviolent shift of command in the nation’s history. Achievements as a federal government official He had several achievements in his occupancy, the most notable one in the first term coming when he procured Louisiana in 1803, and his sustaining the Lewis and Clark mission (Coates). His second term was more exigent both internally and overseas, but he is lauded for the pains he endured to uphold impartiality in the center of the Britain-France differences. Jefferson revised the criminal regulations, which was later certified in 1796. He had numerous supportive bills, for example, the conception of modern libraries which took time to be implemented (Coates). He proposed a state of spiritual autonomy, which was unfortunately discarded, causing distress in the nation for practically a decade, before passing in 1786. Jefferson made noteworthy contributions by suggesting the use of the decimal structure which prejudiced the use of the dollar as the central fiscal unit in the US. He is best considered for his championing for liberation, despite the unfriendliness received from scholars (Kelly). Worldwide, he remains a radiant, inspirational symbol for the major US parties, open-minded reformers across the world, and buoyant democrats. Some of his quotations are pertinent in the present social order, signifying autonomy, and the essent iality of principles in resolutions. Later years/death Thomas left his presidency in1809 to a close comrade, before heading back to Monticello to spend the afterward part of his life. His sold his collected literatures to the state to ease the creation of a library. At 76, he partook his last grand communal service by ensuring the groundwork of a university in Virginia (Kelly), where he fore-fronted the lawmaking procedure of acquaintance, securing its locality, scheming its structures, scheduling its syllabus and serving as the first parson.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Thomas Jefferson specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More He passed away in 1826, at the age of 83, on the 50th centennial of the marking of the Declaration of Independence (Coates). His epitaph echoed what he had given the populace, rather than what they had given him. He yearned to be remembered for his causes to attain sovereignty from Britain, se lf-determination of principles, and achievement of autonomy through edification. Works Cited Bernstein, Richard. Thomas Jefferson. New York: Oxford university press, 2005, pp. 81-89. Coates, Eyler. Life of Thomas Jefferson. Web. Available at  https://guides.lib.virginia.edu/TJ Kelly, martin. Thomas Jefferson biography- third president of the United States. About.com: American history, 2010. Web. Available at  https://www.thoughtco.com/thomas-jefferson-3rd-president-united-states-104985 Malone, Dumas. Thomas Jefferson: a brief biography. North Carolina: UNC press books, 2002, pp. 10-11. Morse, John. Thomas Jefferson. South Carolina: BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2008, pp. 1-295. This essay on Thomas Jefferson was written and submitted by user Arian Harrell to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.